Stone
From CollabLandWiki
New Zealand
Manufacturing / extraction processes
Manufacturing and extraction of stone can come from 2 sources, Quarries and Riverbeds. • Quarries A quarry is the primary source of stone where it is obtained from blasting the side of a rock face. The dislodged material is then crushed into a various range of aggragates. Depending of the form and type of stone will depend on its size and use.
• Riverbeds The main source from riverbeds is gravel and sand. These are formed by natural erosion of existing rock and then naturally transported by either ice or water movement. These forms are then extracted and can either be used as its natural form or cruched. The former extraction of matieral was highly labour entensive before machinery was readily avaliable. Machinery today plays a large part in the extraction and transportation processess with stone, the industry is now highly dependable upon skilled employees and machinery.
Controll blasting is the main source of dislodging the material from the rock face within quarries,
where explosives are placed around the desired area.
Gravel and sand are extracted from dry pits for river beds that do not require blasting. The extraction methods requires hydrolic excavators to move particular material. Once at the plant, the use of machinery such as the jaw, qyrator and impact crushers continue to manipulate the material into its desired size and shape. This includes things like; breaking, shaping, fragmentation, splitting and cleaving, bruising, flaking, abrading and polishing.
• Extraction tools that are commonly used: Hand-working, Levers, Jacks, Picks, Hammers, Chisels, Machinery, Jack-Hammers, Saws, Chain-Saws, and Mechanical chisels.
• Stoneworking tools that are commonly used:
Hand-working, Hammers, Chisels, Drills, Saws, Grinding Stones, Polishing Powder, Machinery, Guillotines,
Saws, Planers, Grinders, Polishers, and Water jets.
Material properties
GRANITE: Granite has the ability to take multiple finishes, which allows the designer to talor-make the stone into its desired finish. With the proper finish to the final surface allows the stone to be scratch resistant and highly durable in high foot traffic areas. Quartz and Feldspars make up 90% of the stone which allows the material to become stratch resistant. Refer to the Moh's Scale of Relative Hardness for minerals details.
LIMESTONE: Limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting mainly of the mineral calcite. The colour changes depending on the impurities which allow the stone to become multiple colous from white to red, and can be a mixture of many colours. Limestone has the property which is usually quite anisotropic, or "directionally specific", this usually causes the stone to split.
OAMARU STONE: Quarried at Weston, Otago. Oamaru stone is a creamy sandy colour and is very useful when ornate features are needed within a landscape. The problem with this particular stone is that it is highly susceptible to pollution which degrades the structural properties. Sculptures use this material for its easily worked surface.
MARBLE: "metamorphic rock consisting of fine to coarse-grained recrystallized calcite and/or dolomite." True marble is described as white in colour, while marble can be avaliable in multiple colours, they are forms of imperfections within the stone. Marble can be considered close to the same properties as granite but performs lower in flexural strength, compressive strength and abrasion resistance. This all leads to increased thickness in cladding, reducing spans and increased degradation in high traffic areas.
SANDSTONE: This is a stone that is made up of very tiny mineral and rock grains. This sedimentary rock contains quartz and feldspar which are important elements found on the surface of the earth. Sandstone is a popular material because it does not weather and is very easy to work. Sandstone can be used as a building material, for pavers or to make grindstones to sharpen things.
SLATE: Slate is a metamorphis rock which has carbonaceous materials which causes the stone to take a wide variety of colour spectrum
Other Properties relating to Stone:
Insulation: When stone is compared to other building materials it does not favour as highly as an insulating material. It is sometimes viewed as a very cold and sterile material. The enviromental factors surrounding the instillation of stone determine how successful it will be as an insulator. Stone is a cold material to touch especially in summer because, it contains a great mass of material. This mass is very slow to heat up because it is so large. Although stone is an excellent insulator of sound because it is so dense.
Porosity: Many building stones are very porous. It is important to note that the porosity of stone has no direct relationship with how weathering over time effects stone. For example, the Colliseum in Rome was built from extremely porous stone yet has definately withstanded the test of time and been very durable. It is a well known fact that some people choose not to use porous stone for building with for fear of the dampness that they can contain. Although this is yet to be proven. Stone types with alot of smaller pores that have contact with water can lead to the material expanding.
Format & finish of materials
Granite:
Used in; Pavers, Curbing, Crushed stone and Granite Dust. It is a slightly expensive material that can sometimes be hard to finish nicely.
Limestone:
Used in: limestone dust, building veneer, pavers, crushed aggregate, ashlar and flagstone walls. Because limestone tends to be quite a reactive stone it needs to not come into contact with areas of risk. These could be industrial or high impact areas, which have smoke fumes, acids, oil, or grease. The limestone needs to be waterproofed.
Marble:
Used in; veneer monuments and crushed aggregate. It is available in four quality grades. The grade is chosen by the need for a quality finish and the amount of work it requires. This is a chemically reactive substance so it should also not come into contact with industrial, high impact or weathering areas.
Sandstone:
Used in; veneer, pavers, cut stone, and rubble. This is a popular choice to use for a non-slip walking surface.
Riverstone (Bluestone):Used in; stairways, creates a strong boundery between pathways.
Polished Stone:
It is important to choose wisely when using these as paving materials. In wet weather conditions they can be dangerous when they become slippery.
Slate:
Used in; Roofing slate and flagstones for paving or walls. This is a very strong material that can withstand pressure. It has high tensile strength. It is available in a variety of colours including red, black, green, purple and gray.
Common fixing methods
Any joints in stone should not allow for the collection of water because some certain types of stone react to this. Therefore joints need to be firstly compressed, and then by using tools force mortar into the individual joints. This ensures permeability.
A common fixing method is by using mortar. This is a mixture of ingredients that make up a type of cement with sand and water. Each specific masonary task uses a unique combination of ingredients for that task. This bonds the units together. Mortar gets its colour by using coloured aggregate or pigments. Some organic colours should be avoided though because they can be toxic.
The usefulness of mortar in its fixing properties can be evaluated by looking at the hardened state and its bond strength. The less air in the mixture the stronger the final outcome will be. By increasing the flow of the mortar you can increase the strength. And finally, the quicker you lay the different stone units after spreading the mortar, the more effective the fixing method will be.
Durability and maintenance requirements
Seasoning:
One of the most common maintenance requirements for stone is the process called seasoning. This is when the stone is dried out so that there is no moisture left. This is most commonly done immediately after quarrying when the stone is easiest to work with. Stone types like soft limestone almost always have this done to it. With harder stones it seems to be less effected by water, acid, and the elements imposed on it by the quarry. Therefore seasoning is not always required. Ultimately seasoning gives the stone more strength.
Life-cycle / recycling possibilities
Stone is often very exposed to the elements. When weathering occurs though, it is not necessarily a negative thing. It can bring out certain qualities in the stone that only occur over time.
Decay in the stone can be caused by three main things:
-Warming and cooling of water in or on the stone means the there can be the effects of water expansion.
-The soluble salts in the stone becoming crystallised.
-The air and the rain water containing acid touching the stone over time.
The life cycle of the stone can be effected by what the elements are that the stone has to withstand. If it is constantly battered with rain this can have a lasting effect. It depends on how extreme the climate is where the stone is, as to how weathering will effect it over time.
List of manufacturers / contractors / suppliers
• Ablaze
Address: 35 Western Hutt Rd Petone Lower Hutt, Phone number: 0-4-568 8888
• Flintstonze
Phone number: 0800 786 693
• Original Stone
Address: Home Ideas Centre Petone Wellington, Phone number: 0-4-939 6985
• Ablaze Stone
Stone Origin
Clyde supplies
Address: 24 Takapu Rd Grenada North Wellington, Phone number: 0-4-232 2288
• Bedrock Landscape Supplies
Bombay Blue
Address: 4 Landfill Rd Happy Valley Wellington, Phone number: 0-4-383 7268
• Art In Stone - Monumental Masons
Address: 28 Riverbank Rd Otaki, Phone number: 0800 804 007
• Bramco Granite & Marble
Address: PO Box 33 305 Petone Lower Hutt, Phone number: 0-4-570 0025
• Kiel Landscape Specialists Ltd
Address: 13 Whareroa Rd Raumati Beach Paraparaumu, Phone number: 0-4-905 3045
• Waikanae Memorials
Address: Cnr Omahi St & Kapanui Rd Waikanae, Phone number: 0-4-293 6844
• Glover Memorials Ltd
Address: 298 Naenae Rd Lower Hutt, Phone number: 0-4-567 2565
• All Stone Work Contractor
Phone number: 0-27-676 5669
• Aaron Whiteman Monumental Masonry Ltd
Address: 68 Clouston Park Rd Upper Hutt, Phone number: 0-4-939 9712
• Bambam Stonemasonary
Address: 570 A Stokes Valley Rd Stokes Valley Wellington, Phone number: 0-27-223 9922
• Stone Wall Co
Address: PO Box 14310 Kilbirnie, Phone number: 029 9718618
• Art In Stone
Phone number: 0-6-364 7400
• Wellington Memorials Ltd
Address: 211 Riddiford St Newtown Wellington, Phone number: 0-4-389 9292
• Bosworth Stone
Address: 91 Manuka St Stokes Valley Lower Hutt, Phone number: 0-21-277 4099
Product information / specifications
Our group conducted various telephone interviews to stone manufacturing companies about product information and the manufacturing of stone in New Zealand as well as visiting the company 'Ablaze Stone';
Craig from Bedrock Landscape Suppliers, had the following to say about how their company processes orders for stone like Granite: “We only have samples of Granite on display, and if a customer wishes to order some that is possible. The Granite is then shipped from China to the specifications of the customer. It is all pre-cut when it arrives.
Most granite used in New Zealand is not from here. This is because New Zealand granite is protected and there are laws in place that do not allow extraction to take place. New Zealand have been good at thinking ahead as the Granite supply is limited. For our company, processing is done in a certain room with heavy equipment including drillers. Unfortunately we don’t allow unauthorized people to go through and take photos. Because of the safety issues surrounding occupational health and safety.”
From going on a site visit to Ablaze stone in Tawa we meet up with Vicki who shared some useful information with us. One of these things being where they source the majority of their stones from; “River stones are extracted and distributed from the Waiarapa. We then are the in-between link between the extraction process and the clients."
Wellington Memorials Limited in Newtown shared with us where they get some of their stone from, and then what they do to it when it arrives: “Granite is pre-cut in India and sent to us. We then engrave it ourselves.”
Some product information and definitions relating to stone:
Polished/Honed - smooth finish with reflection and sharpens fine-grained whetstone
Sand blasted- textured finished
Flamed- scorched finish
Tumbled- small pieces stone are fabricate a slightly rough finish
Raked- finished with heat, surface of the stone is raked giving a similar appearance
Split- results in separating stones to reveal its natural textures
Precedent - Natural finish
.
Precedent 2
Precedents: Finished Stone Instillations in the Natural Landscape
1. This large marble instillation on Point Jerningham is a very grand and majestic memorial to those who served in World war One and Two. The memorial is very close to where the old gun fortifications are. Although this memorial can be seen as a worthy memorial to those who served in the war, I feel that it is very different to the surroundings it has been placed in. It contains long view shafts that seem to slightly cut you off from the surrounding beauty of the Wellington harbour. The marble is s very polished and perfected stone. I feel that war should not be neccessarily glorified like this. Maybe the stone used could of been rougher and darker in color, fitting in with the rest of the surrounding elements as well as perhaps being a metaphor for what the country had to endure? The marble memorial did seem though to take me back in time and give me a sense of peace.
2. The stone bridge from the Wellington Botanic gardens is a very beautiful structure, that I found to be very inspiring. It has used local stones to it's advantage because it means the bridge fits in with the surrounding planting and bush. A particular aspect that I enjoy is the way that the stone work encompasses the pipe at the bottom. The bridge appears to be a more solid form because you can't see water flowing beneath it. The bridge doesn't seem to be arched like a normal bridge, maybe this is influenced by the use of the material stone?
3. This instillation in the Wellington Botanic Gardens seemed to startle me at first as I came upon it. It is a very large sculptural work beside the path in the bush. I liked the way that on both sides of it, it used different textural qualities of the same stone. One side was rough and unpolished and the other polished and gleeming. Although, I didn't really like the way it forced you to look through a certain viewpoint to nothing new in particular. It seemed to me like it was trying to frame the bush, something that is wild and untamed through the use of stone.
4. I thouroughly loved this granite set of steps that I found in the Wellington Botanic gardens. There is a word written on each step and as you go up each step one letter changes to make a new word on each step. The last word sums up the progression you have made coming up the steps. Polished granite stone seemed like a different and interesting material to make this instillation out of. Granite was a good choice of material for something that is going to be often used because it doesn't wear away as fast as some other types of stone do. Because the steps didnt really lead anywhere it made you focus on the steps themselves instead of where you were heading.
5. These stones on the Wellington waterfront provide an interesting and valuable link between land and sea. As well as providing a buffering wall they allow for people to clamber over them or sit on them and reflect. These stones were moved to this area and placed accordingly when the waterfront area was re-developed. I feel that they fit into the surrounding area extremely well.
6. This is a very large tierred wall in the Bolton Street cemetry that faces out to a sort-of small ampitheatre that is surrounded by a tall stone wall and grave stones off to the sides. I like this wall because it gives people a place to sit. Structurally it is successful because it is a retaining wall as well as an instillation that frames the area. It provides a place for reflection as well as opening out the area. The stone work is very neat and compliments the stone work in the surounding grave stones.
References
•Ablaze-Stone Orgin Brochure,
Ablaze Stone Company, 2006
•Bedrock Landscape Supplies
Phone Interview with Craig, (Staff Member) Phone: 04 383 7268 on the 11th July 2006
•Landscape, Gardens by New Zealand's top designers
Rose Thodey and Gil Hanly, Random House New Zealand Publishing, 2005
•Stone:An Introduction,
Asher Shadman, Intermediate technology publications limited, 1989 (Reprinted in 1996)
•Stone:Properties, Durability in Man's enviroment,
E.M Winkler, Springer-Verlag New York, 1973
•Time saver standards for Landscape Design (Design and construction data, 2nd edition),
Charles .W Harris and Nicholas .T Dines, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1998
• http://www.stonedirect.co.nz
• http://www.stoneorigin.co.nz
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarry
Further Pictures of Stone
USA
Manufacturing/Extracation Processes
Building stone is wrested from quarries in rough blocks, then cut and carved to the desired shapes. Since the physical and visual properties of stone cannot be controlled, one must take color, type, and nature of the stone into consideration when choosing. Forms of stone from quarries used in the construction industry are: fieldstone- rough stone form river-beds or fields rubble- irregular quarried fragments dimension stone- quarried and cut in a rectangular form cut stone- large slabs of stone ashlar- small rectangular blocks flagstone- thin regular or irregular slabs
The type of stone determines the maximum size or minimum thickness of the sheets cut. Granite is the strongest stone and can be cut as thin as 3/8 inch. Marble is not generally cut thinner than ¾ inch. Limestone is the weakest stone and preferred to not be cut thinner than three inches. Marble and limestone are cut from the quarry using saws with diamond blades.
Typical procedure for quarrying limestone:
A) A diamond belt saw divides the bedrock into long cuts (50 ft. long and 12 ft. high).
Granite, which is much harder, is quarried by drilling, blasting or using a jet burner. The jet burner induces thermal stress and spalling in the granite. Eventually a deep, narrow, trench is excavated isolates each block of granite from the bedrock.
Manufacturing Process (Milling)
The rough blocks of stone selected from the quarry and brought to the mill where they are sawed into slabs. Now, the slabs can be cut into smaller pieces, edged, planed, molded, turned on a lathe, or carved. Automated equipment is normally used to cut and carve the pieces. Finally, they are shipped to the construction site.
Relevant Material Properties
Three types of rock are quarried to produce stone: Igneous: deposited in a molten state Sedimentary: deposited by water and wind Metamorphic: formerly igneous or sedimentary rock with properties transformed by heat and pressure
Some familiar types of rock are granite, basalt, limestone/sandstone, slate, and marble.
Granite is most commonly quarried in North America. It is made of mineral crystals which include colors such as black, pink, red, brown, buff, and green. It is nonporous, hard, strong, durable, and can withstand severe weathering. It can be finished in many textures.
Basalt is usually a dark gray color and is also dense and durable. It is used in the form of rubble.
Slate and marble are metamorphic stones. Slate is dense, hard and easily split into sheets. Used for making paving stones, roof shingles, and thing wall facings, this stone comes in colors that include black, gray, purple, blue, green, and red. Marble occurs in nearly every color and have beautiful patterns of veining. Marble is easily carved and polished.
Format & Finishing of Materials
Finishing is what brings out the aesthetic features of the material. It also gives the stone an ornamental function and provides protection from erosion and wearing. There are several different methods of treatment including mechanical finishing, chemical finishing, and impact finishing.
Mechanical Treatment
The stone is put in contact with an abrasive to reduce the surface roughness. It doesn’t completely remove the roughness, just to a certain extent. There are three different types of abrasives that can be used including rough, honed, and polished.
Rough
After the stone is excavated, sometimes the stone is ready for installation and just needs to be cut to size. This method gives the stone a non-slip quality because of its rough texture.
Honed
This finishing provides a smooth surface by using abrasives of a finer grain. This method gives the stone a non-reflective character and also makes the color tones slightly dull. The honed treatment also preserves the stone’s natural aesthetic characteristics.
Polished
This is the most used finish and is applied most frequently. The polishing treatment uses some of the finest abrasives. The polishing method gives the stone a mirror effect.
Chemical Treatment
This finish is applied to stone to produce reactions that transform the material surface to improve their characteristics. These finishes can be applied to already installed or freshly cut material. There are several different methods of chemical treatment. The most common are acid washing, and the epoxy process.
Acid Wash
This treatment has a corrosive action on the material. It can be utilized to acquire different effects depending on the type of stone, the type of chemical, and the time it is processed. It is possible to acid wash cut pieces or, with careful precautions, already installed stone. There are acids that can remove rust and oil spots, and also change the color of the material.
Epoxy Process
This process has two main purposes: to improve the materials aesthetic value and its mechanical resistance.
Epoxy Steps:
• One face of the stone is honed to give it a smooth surface on which the resin is applied. • The slab is dried in a kiln to allow the resin to enter into the stone and set. • Then resin is poured again and spread on the slab. • The slab is put in the kiln again to dry the remaining resin. • When the slab comes out it is then ready for polishing.
Impact Treatment
A strong external force is applied in order to alter and enhance the original surface roughness. There are several methods of impact treatment. The most common are brushed, sandblasted, and flamed.
Brushed
This treatment involves applying metal or hard plastic brushes to the material’s surface.
Sandblasted
In this method high-pressure jets of siliceous sand or carborundum is applied to the material. It produces a smooth abrasion, leaving the stone slightly scratched on the surface. The color tones are dulled a bit.
Flamed
This process involves passing a blowpipe that emits a high-temperature flame over the surface. The material goes under a thermal shock from the heat. The surface gained by this treatment is a rough, non-slip, and the color is generally faded.
Common Fixing Methods
Methods for fixing natural stone are usually done by using mortar. Masonry mortar is made from one or more cementitious materials, well-graded sand, and water. All these components mixed together will create a plastic, workable mixture. Mortar for masonry joins units into an integral structure with common performance properties. The mortar creates a fixed seal between units against the admission or air and moisture. This method is the most common method for building natural stone retaining walls and other natural stone structures. All natural stone should be laid on a full, wet bed of 25mm thick mortar.
Durability and Maintenance Requirements
Durability
Weathering Affects:
Frost action: Also know as freeze/thaw cycles is one main contributor to the breaking down of stone. When water gets into the pores of the stone and then freezes it expands and puts pressure inside the pores. Research shows that when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11 percent, with a force of up to 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This extreme amount of press cause the stone, or rock, over time to start to crack, chip and flake after repeated freezing and thawing.
Thermal Expansion: Different kinds of stone expand and contract at differently, when this happens it is called heat expansion and contraction. Stones can vary in air temperature by up to 50%. Some stone material that is darker in color absorb the heat better then light one but then may also give it up much more easily. After repeated heating and cooling tiny fractures and start to occur in the mineral grain. Water is a vary good catalyst for this event and cause flaking on the source of the stone. This is most evident in the flaking of marble.
Salt Decay: Salts can be on the most harmful effects on stone. Efflorescence is a process in which the stone comes in contact with moisture of some sort and when it starts to dry these salts and mineral from within the stone come to the surface through pores and deposit on the outside of the stone creating a whitish or gray color powder on the outside of the stone. This form process is generally harmless. Subflorescence is another process related to efflorescence but instead of the salts and minerals making it to the surface the buildup within the pores. As the salts begin to build up within the pores they start to expand causing chipping, crumbling, and flaking which may lead to further more extreme breaking down of the rock
Maintenance
There is not very much maintenance for stone due to it's excellent durability. The only maintenance maybe be occasionally washing or cleaning and maybe using mortar or other products in cases of cracking or breaking.
Cleaning: If washing or cleaning stone be careful of using acidic cleaners. Many types of stone resist acidic solution well but other may not. One of the most common types of stone which does not do well with acidic cleaners is Marble. Neutral PH cleaners for everyday work well for normal, everyday stone maintenance. If heavy duty cleaning is in order it is best to use an alkaline (higher PH) cleaner. They are great cleaners that do not damage or harm the stone.
Repair: In cases of breaking or cracking a mortar can be used to seal up and fix cracks which also helps prevent further cracking. Masonry mortar is made from one or more cementitious materials, well-graded sand, and water. All these components mixed together will create a plastic, workable mixture.
Life-cycle/ Recycling Possibilities
Due to their illustrious durability stones can be used over and over. Their toughness helps them exist in many different environments and still come out with few crack, chips, or breaks.
Stone can be used for a wide array of many different uses.
Some of those uses are, but not limited to:
-paths
-stairway
-roads
-landscaping
-building
-houses
-walls
One example is this house built by a man named Jim Bishop in Beulah, Colorado. Jim single-handedly collected all the stones and built this 70 ft high castle by himself!
List of manufacturers / contractors / suppliers
• Aggregate Industries
Address: 711 Aggregate Industries Drive
- Fargo, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-277-0174
• Ames Sand & Gravel
Address: 2702 1st Ave. N.
- Fargo, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-232-2594
- 701-494-3310 (Felton PLant)
• Asplin Sand & Gravel
Address: 3100 41st St. SW
- Fargo, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-277-0048
• Boulder Unlimited
Address: Fargo, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-729-4080
• Fitzgerald Construction
Address: Sabin, Minnesota
Phone #: 218-789-7318
• Gutzmer Sand & Gravel
Address: Lisbon, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-683-5573
• Krause Bros Construction
Address: Fargo, North Dakota
Phone #: 701-478-4488
Product information / specifications
Our group went out to Steve Adamek’s house, the owner of Boulder’s Unlimited, and conducted an interview to get some more information about his business and on stone material. Steve is a Geologist who is a graduate of North Dakota State University. Right after he graduated he decided to start up a side business apart from his geology work. He went out to local quarries, gathered up some of the most interesting boulders he could find and started selling them for homes and businesses in the Fargo/Moorhead area. Here are a few questions that we asked (these aren’t exact quotations):
Do you do the actual extraction process?
No, I pick what I want out of local gravel pits, farm fields, and quarries.
What types of rocks are found in the F/M area?
In the valley there are none. I usually go outside of Valley City and Holly and find mostly the same rocks such as scoria, limestone, sandstone, and different types of granite.
What do you find are some of the durability and maintenance requirements for stone material?
Scoria stone can be very angular so it is not recommended for people who have children. Some stones leach out sulfides and those aren’t recommended. Also when limestone freezes in the winter and thaws in the spring it starts to cleave and peel apart. Also people have to be aware of iron rich water because that can sometimes give the stone an orange tint.
How do you market your business?
Steve told us that he does not do a lot for advertising. For about 8 years he set up a booth at the Home and Garden Show at the Fargo dome where he would raffle of a giant boulder that would be engraved to a lucky viewer. This raffle helped bring in a lot of business. Steve also told us that for the past couple of years he has been spending more time with his fulltime job and is traveling a lot from week to week. He still tries to maintain his business but basically relies on word-of-mouth advertising and his website.
Pictures of Boulder's Unlimited Stock Located in Fargo
Precedent 1
Zach Pleiss
Precedent 2
Laura Zimmerman
Precedent 3
Josh Kary
More Pictures of Stone
References
Allen, Edward and Iano, Joseph. Fundamentals of Building Construction. John Wiley & Sons, 2004. p. 304-311.
